Science Branches

Science is a Continuous Search for Knowledge

Science comes from the Latin word Scientia (scient, sciens), which means “having knowledge.” A scientist once said, “Science is an observation followed by experimentation leading to further observations and followed again by further experimentations.”

For example, from the idea of the four-dimensional universe, Albert Einstein developed his Law of Relativity. Then other scientists made use of Einstein’s theory to explore the atom. In the 1930’s, it was discovered that an atom could be split, producing a large quantity of energy. In the 1940’s, practical atomic reactors were built. Today, we have power plants that make use of atomic energy. Almost all the physical laws concerning the universe were discovered in the middle of the sixteenth century, the Age of Modern Science. It all began with very few ideas. Those few ideas have grown, and they continue to grow and develop. New ideas lead to new discoveries that fuel more new ideas and discoveries.

Today, we know that the neutrons, protons, and electrons are no longer the smallest particles that make up objects because scientists have discovered smaller particles in 1977 that they named as quarks.

Science as a Product and a Process

Science is ….

1. an ongoing process of investigating and thinking;

2. a way of thinking which involves reasoning; and

3. a way of investigating which involves questions, observations,
experimentations, and predictions.

Branches of Science

1. Social science – focuses primarily on the study of people, culture, and their      societies.

Branches of Social Science

                a. Economics                      e. Law                              

                b. Geography                      f. Education

                c. History                           g. Sociology

                d. Psychology

2. Natural science – seeks to understand the natural world and its different   processes

Natural Science is divided into...

a. Pure science – is used in pursuit of new knowledge. It deals with new     discoveries that may or may not have current practical applications.

Pure Science is divided into..

1. Physical sciences – are those that involve the study of nonliving things.

                               This group includes the following:
a. Physics – the science that deals with matter and energy and the interaction between them.

b. Chemistry – the science that deals with matter, its composition, structure, and properties; the changes it undergoes; and the energy accompanying these changes.

c. Earth Science – the study of earth and its composition, what processes happen in its interior and its surface, and how it is similar to and different with other entities in space. It includes the study of nonliving things such as rocks, soil, clouds, rivers, oceans, planets, stars and meteors. It also covers the weather and climate systems that affect Earth.

2. Biological sciences or Biology – involves the study of living things. 

b. Applied sciences – use the discoveries of the pure sciences to create practical solutions to existing problems and create products that can be used in actual settings.

SAFETY RULES IN THE USE OF THE LABORATORY

1. Eye and Face Safety

a. Always wear safety goggles

b. Always point a bottle or test tube away from you and others when it is being heated.

2. Glassware Safety

a. Never use broken glassware

b. When heating any glassware, be sure that it is thoroughly dry.

c. In picking up hot glassware, always use heat-resistant gloves.

d. always clean glassware thoroughly after using it.

3. Sharp Instrument Safety

a. Always handle any sharp instrument with extreme care. Always cut any material away from you.

b. Avoid using double-edged razors.

c. Inform your teacher immediately if you accidentally cut yourself while doing an experiment.

4. Electrical Safety

a. Never touch an electrical outlet or appliance when your hands are wet.

b. Do  not overload the socket by plugging too many different appliances into one socket.

c. Do not use long extension cords to plug in an electrical device.

5. Chemical Safety

a. Do not mix chemicals unless you are told to do so.

b. Do not taste or touch any chemical unless instructed.

c. Do not smell any chemical directly from its container.

d. Close all lids when chemicals are not in use.

e. Always rinse any chemical off your skin and laboratory gown with water.

6. Heat/Fire Safety

a. Wear safety goggles whenever you use any source of fire.

b. Never heat any chemical unless told to do so.

c. Do not heat sealed containers.

d. Never reach across the flame.

e. Use clamp, tongs, or any heat-resistant gloves to handle hot objects.

LABORATORY TOOLS

1. Beakers – used to hold and heat liquids. They are essential in the laboratory, and they are used for several purposes.

2. Reagent Bottle – bottles can be used for storage, for mixing, and for display.

3. Bunsen Burner – Bunsen burners are used for heating and exposing items to flame.

beaker

alcohol lamp

4. Buret – is used in chemical analysis to measure precisely how much is used for filtration.

5. Crucible – is used to heat small quantities of chemicals/substances in very high temperatures. They can withstand temperatures high enough to melt or alter their contents.

6. Erlenmeyer Flask – is used 
to heat and store liquids. The advantage of the Erlenmeyer flask is that the bottom is wider than the top so it will heat up quicker because of the greater surface area exposed to the heat.

7. Evaporating Dish – is used to heat and evaporate liquids.

8. Florence Flask – is used for heating substances that need to be heated evenly. The bulbed bottom allows the heat to distribute through the liquid more evenly. The Florence flask is mostly used in distillation experiments.

9. Funnel – is a piece of equipment that is used in the laboratory but is not confined to the laboratory. The funnel can be used to transfer liquids into another container so they will not spill.

10. Microspatula – commonly called a spatula, is used for transferring small amounts of solid from one container to another.

11. Mortar and Pestle – are used to crush solids into powders for experiments, usually to dissolve the solids better.

12. Pipet – is used for moving small amounts of liquid from one container to another. It is usually made of plastic and is disposable.

13. Ring Stand – ring stands are used to support items being heated. Clamps or rings can be used so that other items may be placed above them for heating using a Bunsen burner.

14. Stirring Rod/Glass Rod – the stirring rods are used to stir solutions to dissolve substances. They are usually made of glass. Stirring rods are very useful in the laboratory setting.

15. Stopper/Cork – stoppers are used to seal test tubes and flasks. They come in different sizes ranging from 0 to 8.

16. Test Tube Brush – is used to easily clean the inside of a test tube.

17. Test Tube Holder – is used to hold test tubes while being heated.

18. Test Tube Rack – is used to hold test tubes upright while observing reactions or when test tubes are not used in experiments.

test tube holder

wire gauge

tripod

19. Thermometer – is used to take temperature of solids, liquids, and gases.

20. Tongs – are used to hold many different things such as flasks, crucibles, and evaporating dishes when they are hot.

21. Clay Triangle – is used to hold crucibles when they are being heated. They usually sit on a ring stand.

FILIPINO SCIENTIST - FABIAN M. DAYRIT (Chemist)

Dr. Fabian “Toby” Dayrit is the son of Conrado Dayrit, a physician and pharmacologist, and Milagros Millar. Early on, Dr. Dayrit knew he was going to pursue science studies for college. While his other siblings took business –related courses, he took Chemistry at the Ateneo de Manila University.

After graduating in 1975, he immediately took his licensure exam, where he placed in the top ten. He pursued his graduate studies at Princeton University in the United States under a scholarship. His specialization was on organometallic chemistry. His findings were published in several prestigious journals, such as the Journal of the American Chemical Society, Journal of Organic Chemistry, and Pure and Applied Chemistry.

When Dr. Dayrit returned to the Philippines in December 1982, he wanted to continue his study on organometallic chemistry. However, a substantial amount of equipment and resources were needed to do good research in the field. At that time, the Philippines still lacked them. His father invited him to join a group of scientists studying medicinal plants, which he found interesting.

Through the years, Dr. Dayrit, through the group he joined, has worked on Vitex negundo (lagundi), Momordica charantia (ampalaya), Moringa oleifera (malunggay), Bixa Orellana (achuete), and others. The goal of his group, the National Integrated Research Program for Medicinal Plants or NRIPROMP, is to systematize indigenous research by identifying and analyzing active compounds in medicinal plants in the hope to boost local medicinal expertise in the process.

Their research established the effectivity of lagundi for colds, and through the combined efforts of various Philippine research institutions, lagundi tablets and syrups were developed and are now available as medicines in our country. This provides alternatives to synthetic drugs because plant-based medicines from indigenous Philippine plants to help treat other illnesses.

Dr. Dayrit’s work on these medicinal plants helps the growth of phytochemistry in the Philippines. Aside from finding treatments for illnesses, Dr. Dayrit attempts to prevent diseases by working in the field of environmental science.

FILIPINO SCIENTIST - MARIA CORAZON A. de UNGRIA (Forensic Scientist)

Dr. Maria Corazon A. de Ungria is currently the head of the DNA Analysis Laboratory of the Natural Sciences Research Institute of the University of the Philippines in Diliman, Quezon City. This laboratory conducts research, training, and actual casework on enhancing the country’s capacity to conduct DNA analysis for forensic applications. It is the CSI of the Philippines. The laboratory helps law enforcement groups solve different kinds of crimes.

She finished her degree in Bachelor of Science in Biology at Macquarie University with honors and her doctorate degree in Microbiology at the University of New South Wales, both in Sydney, Australia.

Dr. de Ungria returned to the Philippines after graduating and worked at the DNA Analysis Laboratory in 1999. As head of the laboratory, she was entrusted to lead a team of young researchers in developing forensic DNA technology in the Philippines at the time that the technology was fairly new. She advocated for the use of forensic DNA technology at the service of society, especially in assisting the more vulnerable members of our community such as abused women and children, as well as those who have been wrongfully convicted in their struggle for justice.

For her efforts, Dr. de Ungria had been given several prestigious scientific awards such as the Outstanding Young Scientist by the National Academy of Science and Technology in 2003, the UP Gawad Hall of Fame for Best REPS in Research in 2005, the Outstanding Young Scientist award by the Third World Academy of Science in the Developing World from 2007-2012.

Today, Dr. de Ungria is invited to speak at a number of gatherings, and through these opportunities, she continues to share her passion to bring justice to society. She also encourages everyone, particularly students, to have dedication in what they do so they will be able to do their best.

These people may appear to be superheroes; but they are also mothers, fathers, brothers, sisters, and friends. They are, in fact, ordinary people like us. This just proves that all of us can become scientists if we choose to and if we work hard for it.

FILIPINO SCIENTIST - LOURDES C. CRUZ (Biochemist)

Dr. Luly Cruz, as she is often called, completed the degree of BS Chemistry at the University of the Philippines in Diliman in 1962. She earned her MS and PhD in Biochemistry at the University of Iowa, United States in 1966 and 1968, respectively. she served as research aide at the International Rice Research Institute, where she returned after earning her doctorate degree.

She also taught at the UP Department of Biochemistry as an assistant professor in 1970 and as a full-time professor in 1977. She served as chairperson of UP Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology from 1980 to 1986. She has been a research associate and later a research professor at the University of Utah for one to six months every year for more than 20 years. She is now based at the UP Marine Science Institute.

Dr. Cruz’s research focused on extracting toxins from deadly cone snails to make useful substances. She has published over 120 scientific papers that greatly contributed to the understanding of the biochemistry of toxic peptides from the venom of fish-hunting Conus marine snails. Her studies helped characterized over 50 biologically active peptides and were later used as biochemical probes for examining the activities of the human brain.

In March 2010, Dr. Cruz was recognized with a prestigious award by the 12^th L’Oreal-UNESCO for Women in Science Program. In the ceremony held at the UNESCO headquarters, Dr. Cruz, representing Asia Pacific, was honored as one of five exceptional female scientists in five continents who exemplify women scientist in terms of quality of research and strength of commitment.

Dr. Cruz also established the Rural Livelihood Incubator in 2001 with the help of volunteers and private donors. This aimed to generate employment opportunities and establish a sustainable means of livelihood to counter poverty and sociopolitical instability in rural areas, particularly in a research site in Bataan.

At the age of 64, the rank and title of National Scientist was awarded to Dr. Cruz in 2007. This is the highest honor given to a man or woman of science in the Philippines. 

Effects of Science and Technology on Society

Science and technology have influenced much of our lives. The fruits of research from the different fields of science have made people’s lives more convenient. Technology has definitely benefited society. The automation brought about by technology has saved human effort and time to a large extent. It has brought distant places closer and simplified information access.

However, some products of science have also caused human society pain and destruction. Technology was also responsible for weapons and bombs that brought violence within and among nations. In 1945, during the World War II, nuclear energy was used to destroy Japan via the atomic bombing of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Over 200,000 people died in the bombing.

Another problem is the development of nuclear energy as source of power for homes, trains, and submarines. The worst nuclear power plant accident happened in Ukraine, the Chernobyl disaster, on April 26, 1986. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination in the atmosphere. The Russian publication concluded that more than 985,000 deaths occurred between 1986 and 2004 as a result of contamination.

One of the biggest problems is water and air pollution. Pollution is not a product of science. It is just an after effect. the burning of fossil fuels causes the degradation of our environment because of air pollution. Furthermore, as we become a material-based society where everything is man-made, we create large amounts of waste. Since products are cheap, we opt to get new items rather than reuse or repair old and broken ones. We have become a “disposable society”, which also contributes to the worldwide solid waste problem.

The bottom line is, there are positive and negative sides in everything, but it is up to humans as consumers of science and technology to choose how they will be used.

Doing An Investigatory Project

A. Guide Questions

1. a. What topic/project do you want to work on?

b. Is it meant to solve a problem? explain a phenomenon? produce a new     gadget?  produce a new product?
c. Specifically what questions will your study answer?

2.  a. What necessary information about your topic or problem is available in reference books?
b. What studies similar to yours have been conducted before? What were the findings of those studies?
c. How does your study differ from each of them?

3. a. If your study aims to explain a certain phenomenon, what is the possible explanation.

b. If your study aims to solve a problem, what is a possible solution? (this is your hypothesis)

4. a. How will you test your hypothesis? To answer this question, design an experiment to test the hypothesis.

b. What data or information do you need to collect from your experiment to be able to judge if your hypothesis is correct or not?

5. a. What are the best ways of presenting the data that you will gather from the experiment?

b. How will you analyze and interpret the data?

6. What generalizations can be drawn from your data?

7. Is your study relevant to life? If so, how will you apply your findings in life? Think of a possible application of your findings.

B. Outline and Guide Questions

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Why did you conduct the study?

B. Statement of the Problem

1. What topic/problem did you study?

2. What specific questions did your study answer?

C. Significance of the Study

1. Who will benefit from your study?

2. How will they benefit?

D. Scope and Limitations of the Study

1. What aspects of the topic were covered by your study?

2. How long did you conduct the study?

3. What limitations of your study should other researchers know?

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE and CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK

A. Review of Literature

1. What information about your topic/problem is available in reference materials?

2. What findings from earlier research are relevant to your topic/problem?

B. Conceptual Framework

1. Can you describe how the key variables in your study are related?

2. Can you show that in the form of a diagram?

C. Hypothesis

What specific relationship do you believe exists between every two variables in your conceptual framework (in Part II B above)? The relationship could be a possible explanation of a phenomenon or a possible solution to a problem.

D. Definition of Terms

How should technical terms in your study be interpreted?

III. METHODOLOGY

A. 1. Can you describe the plan or design of the experiment?

    2. What is the experimental variable? the control?

B. 1. Can you describe the sample or the organisms that you worked with?

    2. How did you gather them?

C. How did you collect, organize and record the experimental data?

D. How did you analyze and interpret the data?

IV. RESULTS and FINDINGS

A. How did you present the data? What graphics (e.g. tables, graphs, diagrams) did you use to facilitate understanding of the data?

B. What do the data imply?

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, and RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Why is it necessary to have a brief summary of Parts 1 to IV at this point? What is the advantage of having a subsection entitled Summary of Findings in the form of a list or enumeration?

B. Do the conclusions answer each of the research problems and questions in Parts 1 and II in the previous page?

C. On what specific finding is each recommendation based?

SOME REMINDERS TO STUDENT-RESEARCHERS

1. Know the important properties of all the reagents or materials you will use. If any of these materials has harmful properties, seek appropriate supervision. And find out how to safely dispose of all materials after you finish your experiments.

2. Learn how to use safely and properly all the equipment and instruments you will use. Remember that improper use of equipment will affect the accuracy of the experimental results and may even be dangerous, considering that scientific instruments are generally fragile.

3. Make sure you thoroughly understand all procedures to be used before you begin your experiment. Go through several trial runs, not only for practice, but also to find out if there will be any need to modify the procedure or replace a material or instrument.

4. Decide how you will collect and record your data before you begin your study. It is preferable to:

4.1 record all the information, observation or data in one notebook, NOT on loose slips of paper, so that you will not lose any of the data; and

4.2 write down your observations as soon as you make them. If possible, construct tables, etc. which you can just fill in as you conduct your investigation.